A painted gourd-shaped jar unearthed at the Qingtai site Photo: Courtesy of Qin Cunyu

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The archaeological concept of “Gu Guo” (“proto-states”) has propelled scholarly interpretations of the complex social structures in prehistoric China prior to the emergence of the Erlitou large centralized states (generally refers to the early form of state in China that existed around 1900 BCE to 1500 BCE). The early phase of the proto-states era in the Central Plains roughly corresponds to the period from the late Yangshao culture (c. 5000–3000 BCE) to the early Longshan culture (c. 2500–2000 BCE). During this time, the center of social development in the Central Plains shifted northwest of present-day Zhengzhou and its surrounding areas, where large moat-enclosed settlements and even cities emerged.

Settlement hierarchies

Before the proto-states period, while the Central Plains had repeatedly served as a cultural center, no large settlements emerged. In the early proto-states phase, multiple high-level settlements or cities began to appear, classified into three levels based on size: large (>1,000,000m2), medium (300,000–1,000,000m2), and small (<300,000m2).

In the early proto-states phase (late Yangshao period), a three-tiered settlement system emerged in the northwest of Zhengzhou. The first-tier, Shuanghuaishu, covered 1.17 million square meters and featured large moats, central residential areas, rammed-earth buildings, altars, and complex artifacts. This suggests that Shuanghuaishu may have been a capital city. Second-tier settlements include the Wangou, Dahecun, Qingtai, and Xishan sites, which ranged from 300,000 to 800,000 square meters. The third tier consisted of numerous small settlements, averaging less than 300,000 square meters. 

In the late phase of the proto-states period (early Longshan period), various cultures from the Haidai region in the east, the Jianghan region in the south, southwestern Shanxi in the west, and the Taihang Mountains in the north converged in the Central Plains. This interaction enriched local but diluted existing traditions in the Central Plains, disrupting independent evolution. Archaeological findings reveal that during this phase, Xishan city site around Zhengzhou underwent large-scale repairs, the three moats at Shuanghuaishu were gradually filled in, and Dahecun began constructing walls, indicating a turbulent social environment and a breakdown of harmonious relations between the Central Plains and neighboring regions. Evidence of this breakdown can be seen in ash pit burials (a practice of burying the deceased in ash pits, with those buried usually having low social status) found at the aforementioned sites.

Overall, population fluctuations among different groups in the Central Plains during the early proto-states period disrupted the balance between settlements, leading to increasing complexity in settlement structures, primarily shaped by external influences.  

Large structures and special relics

The discovery of large buildings and unique relics at settlements such as Shuanghuaishu, Xishan, and Qing-tai provides tangible evidence of the region’s movement toward a more complex society.

First, the moats and walls surrounding settlements indicate their importance. Some moats were artificially dug, while others were formed by natural rivers. Shuanghuaishu had three moats, each over 1,000 meters in circumference, which likely had ceremonial significance beyond defensive purposes.  

Second, large buildings and public facilities were discovered within settlements. Remains of numerous houses larger than 100 square meters were found in Xishan, Dahecun, and Wangou. At Shuanghuaishu, the foundation of a central residential area and a large rammed-earth building complex covering more than 5,300 square meters was found. This complex featured a large courtyard, displaying characteristics of early palace architecture in China.

Third, special relics were uncovered. At the Fuxitai site in Gongyi, two altars with a height difference of 2-3 meters were discovered. The upper altar was oval-shaped, measuring 55 meters long and 40 meters wide, while the lower altar was rectangular, measuring 80 meters by 65 meters. Nearby sacrificial pits contained piles of pig skeletons. In the Shuanghuaishu cemetery, the unearthed rammed-earth altars, human and animal bone pits, and artifact pits indicate the prevalence of ritual activities of the time. At Dahecun, over ten ash pit burials were discovered, containing bodies in contorted positions, suggesting unnatural deaths. For instance, in Grave H123 rests the body of an adult female with bound arms and bent legs, hinting that she might have been buried alive. A ritual cup and a pig’s lower jawbone were found near her head, indicating close ties with the Dawenkou people and a breakdown in relations between the Central Plains and the Haidai region.

Both Shuanghuaishu and Dahecun revealed multiple cemeteries, with the latter containing over 1,700 graves, many of which were small and contained few or no grave goods, inconsistent with the size of the settlement. In contrast, at some smaller settlements like Wangwan, archaeologists found several medium-sized tombs with jade ornaments and stone axes, with the skeletons of male tomb occupants painted with red pigment, indicating their high status. The skeletal differences between genders at Shuanghuaishu further confirm social inequality between genders, providing additional evidence of social stratification in the Central Plains at the time.

Emerging social division of labor

Numerous production and household tools have been unearthed in the Central Plains. Household tools can be categorized into cooking, drinking, eating, water storage, and other vessels. Production tools include agricultural, fishing, hunting, processing, textile, and decorative tools, showing a clear trend toward specialization. Painted pottery from the Dahecun site depicts geometric patterns, crops, the sun, the moon, halos, and constellations, demonstrating a rudimentary understanding of mathematics and astronomy shaped by long-term observations of celestial phenomena.

Items such as a silkworm-shaped ivory carving, silk and hemp textiles, crops, and domesticated animals have been found. The silkworm-shaped ivory carving unearthed at Shuanghuaishu depicts the insect in the act of spinning silk, while carbonized textiles from Qingtai have been identified as hemp cloth, ropes, silk, and satin, providing direct evidence of textile production. Archaeological studies show that millet, sorghum, rice, and soybeans were cultivated in the Central Plains, alongside domesticated pigs and dogs. The quantities of these remains suggest that agriculture and animal husbandry predominantly provided the plant and meat resources for the local population, reflecting a mature and well-developed agricultural economy at that time.

‘Central Plains Model’

“Social complexity” is generally associated with concepts like “civilization,” “origins of states,” and “civilized society.” According to criteria proposed by Wang Wei for determining whether prehistoric regions had reached the status of civilized society, regions such as Liangzhu, Taosi, and Shimao can be classified as early states, while civilizations like Hongshan, Dawenkou, and Qujialing were not states despite being highly-developed. In contrast, the early proto-states period in the Central Plains possessed some elements of civilization, but they were not typical.

Current archaeological findings suggest that changes in settlement sizes and structures in the Central Plains were primarily driven by population migration from neighboring areas, while direct hierarchical relationships among settlements were weak. Although elements of civilization emerged during this period, they were largely influenced by external influences. Research indicates that the origins of Chinese civilization exhibit a pattern of “peripheral development,” as highly developed cultures were often found at Liangzhu in coastal regions, as well as Hongshan, Nanzuo, and Shimao in the farming-grazing margins. These cultures invested heavily in building, rituals, and burials, leaving behind a wealth of tangible relics. The Central Plains, situated among these significant cultures, demonstrated limited cultural independence while fostering greater interaction with surrounding regions, thus becoming a hub for the exchange of artifacts, systems, and ideas.

The society of the Central Plains during this time witnessed considerable advancements in productivity. Its political and social environment was open and inclusive, and wealth disparities were not pronounced. Archaeologists have excavated few items dated to the late proto-states in the Central Plains that could represent authority and high social status, while a large quantity of similar items were found at Liangzhu or Hongshan.

In conclusion, whether the Central Plains attained the status of a civilized society during the early proto-states period remains uncertain. Nonetheless, it is clear that civilization in this region was on the brink of evolving into a civilized society. This unique path of civilizational evolution, often referred to as the “Central Plains Model,” presents three key characteristics: a focus on agriculture over religion, a tendency to assimilate and adapt to external influences, and the establishment of a stable social order and ritual norms. These characteristics laid the foundation for the development of more complex social structures in the future.

Qin Cunyu is an associate professor at the College of History and Culture at Henan University.

Edited by REN GUANHONG