This photo shows one of the “Yi Zhuang” (free estates) established by the Hua family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. The “Yi Zhuang” was a unique charity institution in ancient China, established by big families to help the underprivileged among their clan by providing education for the young and caring for the elderly, etc. (DANGKOUGUZHEN.COM )

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An important part of the social security system, social assistance has always been a great concern. In ancient Chinese society, a tradition of benevolence-oriented assistance was established long ago that viewed the people as the most important element of a nation. Unlike its Western counterpart, which is based on Christianity and the spirit of reason, the Chinese tradition of social assistance is characterized by “people saving people” and a hierarchical pattern deeply rooted in the framework of state responsibility.

At present, although some scholars are aware of the genesis and impact of traditional thought on social assistance in China, research in this field has shown a tendency to converge with that of Western social assistance. Examining the tradition of benevolence-oriented assistance will help foster an original system of theory and practice in China.

 

State responsibility
Based on classical Chinese thought, the pattern of social assistance in China transcends the god-oriented one. The benevolence-oriented tradition emphasizes a personal sense of responsibility and mission. It also integrated social assistance into the framework of state responsibility early on, presenting a strong commitment to “people saving people.” In contrast, the Western emphasis on state responsibility came much later.

The benevolence-oriented tradition highlights the concept of taking the people as the most important element of a nation. It is said in The Analects that benevolence means “loving all men.” Mencius said “the benevolent man loves others” and he considered loving others to be the prerequisite of benevolence. It is said in The Classic of Rites that “benevolence is the characteristic element of humanity.” On this basis, Mencius said man’s natural tendency is to be good, asserting that “the feeling of commiseration is the starting point of benevolence.” Xunzi said further that “benevolence is love.”

Classical Chinese thought emphasizes that one’s salvation comes from other people rather than god. The benevolence-oriented tradition values a sense of responsibility and mission to match men’s role as the main body, heightening it to the level of the universe. The Neo-Confucian scholar Zhang Zai proposed “to build up the manifestations of Heaven and Earth’s spirit, to build a good life for the populace, to develop the superb scholarship of past sages, and to establish eternal peace for all generations.” The concept of social assistance based on benevolent love that developed from self-discipline and introspection was ultimately enshrined in a national character that values charity with a sense of responsibility. As it is said in The Analects, “extensively conferring benefits on the people, and able to assist all” and “lovingly disposed to people generally, and kind to creatures,” ancient Chinese scholar-officials considered it natural to be involved in the civil affairs and benefit the whole region.

The benevolence-oriented tradition has also given rise to the framework of state responsibility. “Constructing the family and state at the same time” is seen as the basis for fulfilling the ideal society of Great Unity, which is to say such a society is based on the ruler’s compassionate mind, and it is seen as an inescapable responsibility for the monarch and the family to assist the poor and the weak. The ethics of the household, family and clan are extended to the state. As Mencius said, “The root of the kingdom is in the state. The root of the state is in the family. The root of the family is in the person of its head.” “Filial piety” consolidates the fundamental status of the family in the family-state assistance system.

 

Hierarchical system
Chinese thought on social assistance represents the concept of “being affectionate to your parents” and “putting yourself in another’s shoes.” Highlighting this and a sense of responsibility, the Chinese model differs from that of the West, which advocates equality and fraternity. Although it is enriched by the Mohist concept of “impartial care,” the Chinese model is still mainly a hierarchical system. For instance, Confucius advocated a time when “men did not love their parents only, nor treat as children only their own sons.”

Mencius said: “Treat with the reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated.” He also suggested “in the fields of a district, those who belong to the same nine squares be friendly to one another in their coming and going, aid one another in keeping watch and ward, and sustain one another in sickness,” and that “he is affectionate to his parents, and lovingly disposed to people generally. He is lovingly disposed to people generally, and kind to creatures.” Treating all under heaven as a family, Zhang Zai wrote that “the significance of respecting the senior is revering the elderly, and the significance of loving orphans and the weak is caring for the young.”

To be more specific, in the Chinese model, people assist others according to the degree of proximity. A hierarchical system of personality and values is formed on the basis of lineage, region and ranks and status. The assistance is usually offered only to those who are considered close to oneself. As such, the assistance tends to become a certain investment in personal relations, which shows a strong utilitarian and practical purpose.

 

Facilitating good governance
The people-oriented concept stresses that politicians need to be concerned with people’s livelihood and carry out policies that benefit the people. One advantage of this idea is that it always reflects on and examines the reality of governance in accordance with an ethos that considers the people to be the most important element of a nation, and attaches importance to both the material and spiritual dimensions of social assistance. It represents the social assistance pattern in agricultural society. The idea of “enriching then teaching” highlights raising and educating the people. Confucius was asked: “When they have been enriched, what more shall be done?” He replied, “Teach them.” Mencius suggested that people need to have a certain livelihood, suffering neither from hunger nor cold, and then the ruler can cultivate the people with ethics and rites, and “urge them to proceed to what is good.”

However, the people-oriented concept is based on the way of being a virtuous man and realizing good governance. The Book of Changes instructs the virtuous man to “help the people and nourish his own virtue.” The Discourses of the States and Commentary of Zuo argue that one should pay attention to civil affairs and bring stability to people’s minds. It is said in The Analects that “he cultivates himself so as to give rest to all the people.” Mencius said that “the people are the most important element in a nation,” and that “the sovereign is the lightest.” Xunzi also expressed a similar view. It is said in The Classic of Filial Piety that “the rulers of states did not dare to slight wifeless men and widows.” The Song thinker Zhu Xi elevated the idea of “pitying the wifeless men and widows” to the level of political philosophy and ethics. However, this kind of thought lacks an institutionalized basis. Although the people are considered the most important element of a nation, they do not have the power to rule.

In its process of development, the tradition of social assistance in Chinese society has adopted various views from other schools of thought. It has an inclusive nature of seeking harmony but not uniformity, integrating different elements in an open system. The benevolence-oriented Confucian concept places a greater emphasis on the ruler’s duties and responsibilities, taking social assistance as something given to the people out of mercy. Taoism emphasizes “managing affairs without doing anything.” Emphasizing self-reliance, the value of security and the acceptance of the Mandate of Heaven, Taoism does not encourage people to take assistance from the state as something they deserve. With its fundamental concepts of karmic cause and effect as well as the spirit of compassion, Buddhism emphasizes karma of earthly life and afterlife, advocating compassion, almsgiving and helping others. As an extension of karma, the spirit of compassion requires people to do good deeds and build up virtue, realizing that the causality of the good and evil is all about karma of oneself, and that “thinking of causality, one needs to cultivate virtue and practice benevolence.” All these serve as a deterrent, helping to sustain benevolence-based social assistance among the people. The Mohist ideas of “impartial care,” valuing righteousness and mutual aid supplemented the hierarchical system of Confucianism. Advocating impartial love, it is said in the Mozi that “everybody in the world loves universally, loving others as one’s self,” and “take care of his friend as he does of himself, and take care of his friend’s parents as his own.” Believing that humans are naturally evil, and that deeds are self-serving, Legalism is opposed to offering relief to the poor. Its representative Han Fei Zi believed poverty is caused by individual laziness and extravagance. It is said in the Han Fei Zi that “Extravagant and lazy persons are poor; diligent and frugal persons are rich.” He believed that providing men with enough will encourage extravagancy and sloth, which will lead to poverty. As such, it will do no good to the rulers. Rather, it will bring trouble. Believing that “the law alone leads to political order,” he suggested replacing charity with a policy of rewards and punishments, and that a nation should strengthen itself to carry out policy to benefit the people and assist the destitute.

By integrating excellent views from different schools of thought, the Confucian benevolence-oriented tradition nurtures the concept of social assistance embedded in the indigenous Chinese culture. Taking the people as the most important element of a nation, the social assistance system values responsibilities of the state and individuals. The tradition of people saving people and putting oneself in others’ place has shown its unique advantages. At the same time, it lacks the awareness of “rights” of people and has a utilitarian side. As such, it is an important eternal task for researchers on social assistance to examine its advantages and disadvantages, assimilating fine achievements of human civilization to reshape China’s modern social assistance system.

 

Hou Ling is an associate professor from the Chongqing Normal University.

(edited by CHEN MIRONG)