A painted wooden cameleer figurine unearthed from the Astana Cemetery at Turpan, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Photo: Ren Guanhong/CSST

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As an ancient trade route connecting China and the Western world, the Silk Road played a vital role in fostering economic and cultural exchange throughout history. During the Tang Dynasty, as cross-cultural interactions grew more frequent and complex, linguistic mediators—individuals who served as both linguistic and cultural intermediaries—emerged as indispensable figures along this historic corridor. The Tang era, known for its openness and inclusiveness, vast territory, flourishing economy, and rich cultural diversity, marked a golden age of East-West exchange. Linguistic mediators not only played critical roles in diplomacy and statecraft but also enabled the transmission of knowledge, technologies, and customs across civilizations.  

Role and origins of linguistic mediators

In the Tang period, linguistic mediators were multilingual individuals who enabled communication across cultures. They came from diverse backgrounds: some were ethnic minorities, while others were diplomats, merchants, travelers, or foreigners. Their language skills were developed through familial instruction, formal education, or training in official institutions. 

According to the Tang Liu Dian [an important administrative law code compiled in 722–739], more than 70 political entities maintained long-term friendly relations with the Tang Empire, necessitating a large number of personnel for diplomatic affairs. The Old Book of Tang [the earliest classic history of the Tang Dynasty] records that the Tang government established dedicated interpretation agencies such as the Honglu Si (Court of State Ceremonial) and the Zhongshu Sheng (Secretariat), responsible for receiving foreign envoys, translating official documents, and facilitating diplomatic negotiations.

At the Honglu Si, interpreters handled oral translation and ceremonial protocol during foreign receptions. For instance, during the audience of Uyghur Princess Pijia [daughter of Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur Khan] and the marriage alliance of Princess Xian’an with the Uyghurs under the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang, interpreters translated rituals and led ceremonial procedures. Interpreters of the Zhongshu Sheng, such as Shi Hedan and Yidaranhe, undertook more confidential duties, including the translation of diplomatic texts and participation in sensitive negotiations. The former had served as a subordinate interpreter under Chu Suiliang during his tenure as Director of the Secretariat, while the latter was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to the Western Regions.

Tang regulations required interpreters to pass stringent language exams, especially in commonly used diplomatic tongues such as Sogdian, Tocharian, Sanskrit, Persian, and Turkic. Mastery of both Chinese and at least one foreign language was required to ensure effective communication in diplomacy and trade. Interpreters also received systematic training in Chinese and foreign languages, Tang diplomatic policies, etiquette, and legal codes. The New Book of Tang specifies that candidates, aged 15 to 20, with upright bearing and no physical disabilities, were selected for this training. Interpreters from both the Honglu Si and Zhongshu Sheng held formal government posts and played crucial roles in facilitating ethnic integration and international engagement. 

In addition to official interpreters, many informal ones operated throughout the empire. These included foreign residents and ethnic minorities involved in commerce, religion, and education. Outside of the Honglu Si in Chang’an, interpreter schools were established in frontier regions to meet local multilingual needs. The Ce Fu Yuan Gui records that in 836 CE, Emperor Wenzong ordered the creation of such schools in border areas to strengthen cross-cultural communication.

Facilitating interregional communication

Interpreters were indispensable to Tang diplomacy, ensuring the effective transmission of information between the central court and neighboring states. The Zizhi Tongjian records several missions to the Western Regions, where interpreters helped surmount language barriers and facilitated both political and economic ties—a practice traceable to the Han Dynasty.

For example, during Zhang Qian’s first mission to the Western Regions in the Han Dynasty, the kingdom of Dayuan [one of Central Asia’s three advanced civilizations around 130 BCE, together with Parthia and Greco-Bactria], in order to initiate trade with the Han Empire, provided guides and interpreters to assist his journey to the Great Rouzhi [a branch of the Rouzhi nomads who migrated westward around the 2nd century BCE after being displaced by the Xiongnu]. On his second mission, he reached the states of Dayuan, Kangju [in present-day Samarkand, Uzbekistan], and Bactria. On his return journey, the Wusun dispatched interpreters and guides to escort him back.

Interpreters were also instrumental in resolving major ethnic conflicts and diplomatic disputes. As recorded in the Ce Fu Yuan Gui, when Yuan Zhen was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to the Xueyantuo [an ancient Tiele tribe and khaganate in Northeast Asia] in 642 CE, his precise translations were instrumental in persuading Yinan Khagan to accept the Tang court’s conferment. These diplomatic activities not only reflect the Tang Dynasty interpreters’ functional role of “conveying different languages and bridging different customs,” but also highlight the strategic value of linguistic talents in maintaining order along the Silk Road.

Linguistic mediators likewise played vital roles in Tang-Tubo relations. During Emperor Taizong’s reign, interpreters assisted in managing envoy exchanges, document delivery, and ceremonial communications with Tubo, laying the groundwork for Princess Wencheng’s marriage to the Tubo king. The New Book of Tang records that during the Changqing Alliance [an agreement reached between Tang and Tubo in 823 CE], interpreters played a central role in the oath-taking ceremony, translating the text of the alliance into both parties’ languages. This ensured that the proclamation by the Tubo monk-official could be understood by the Tang delegation and over a hundred tribal chieftains. From diplomatic exchanges in the early Tang period to the institutionalized alliances of the mid-to-late Tang, interpreters consistently served as vital bridges for political trust and cultural integration between the Tang and Tubo.

Interpreters also played crucial roles in the Tang’s relations with Dashi (the Abbasid Caliphate) and Persia. According to the Old Book of Tang, during the Kaiyuan era, the Tang and Abbasid Caliphate exchanged emissaries and gifts such as horses and jeweled belts. Honglu Si interpreters were responsible for receiving delegations and translating during official events.

In one notable incident, an Abbasid envoy insisted on “standing upright without bowing,” in defiance of Tang etiquette. While Tang court censors pushed for punishment, Zhang Shuo, Director of the Secretariat, advised Emperor Xuanzong to respect cultural differences, particularly since the envoy expressed genuine admiration for Chinese civilization. Interpreters from the Honglu Si played a key role in conveying both the envoy’s position and Chinese officials’ perspectives, facilitating mutual understanding and diplomatic harmony.

Promoting cultural exchange  

Interpreters of the period not only translated texts but also facilitated exchanges in art, music, architecture, and other domains, promoting broad cultural integration.

While Buddhist scripture translation was primarily carried out in monastic translation centers, officials from the Zhongshu Sheng and Honglu Si often took part. Owing to their familiarity with diplomatic and religious terminology, translators from the Honglu Si were frequently seconded to assist in the translation and proofreading of Buddhist texts. Civilian interpreters also played important supporting roles in these efforts.  

Interpreters of the Tang Dynasty also served as vital agents of cross-cultural exchange, transmitting elements of Tang administrative practices—such as official document formats and bureaucratic terminology—as well as religious texts (including the Daoist Tao Te Ching and annotated Buddhist scriptures in Chinese), artisanal techniques (such as papermaking and silk weaving patterns), and calendrical knowledge (such as the sexagenary cycle) to the Western Regions, Central Asia, and India. Through diplomatic translation, support in monastic scripture work, and interpretation of technical writings, they enabled the westward flow of Chinese cultural elements. Confucian classics and other cultural texts of the Tang Dynasty were also disseminated to the Western Regions and beyond through the work of linguistic mediators. For instance, according to the Tang Huiyao, the Tang court presented Confucian works such as the Mao Shi (Mao Commentary on the Book of Songs), Book of Rites, and Zuo Zhuan (Zuo Commentary) to various ethnic groups and neighboring states on multiple occasions, effectively promoting the spread of Chinese civilization.

At the same time, Tang interpreters were instrumental in facilitating the absorption of foreign cultures. Persian music and dance, for example, were introduced to the Tang court via the Silk Road, gaining popularity not only at court but also among the general populace, and significantly influencing the development of Tang artistic forms. In the realm of science and knowledge, Tang interpreters contributed to the introduction and localization of foreign knowledge. Gautama Siddha, an official of Indian origin, translated Indian astronomical texts, which were introduced into China during the Tang period and had a notable impact on Chinese astronomical and calendrical studies. In addition, medical knowledge and architectural techniques from West Asia were brought into China through similar channels, enriching the scientific and cultural landscape of the Tang Empire.

Material exchange flourished as well. Tang silk, porcelain, and tea were exported via the Silk Road to Central and West Asia and even to Europe, becoming prized luxury goods. Agricultural tools such as wheelbarrows and mills also reached the West, while spices, gemstones, and medicinal materials flowed into China. These material exchanges were made possible in large part by the efforts of linguistic mediators.

The Tang Empire’s broad international exchange, ethnic integration, and openness made it one of the most magnificent empires in world history. The flourishing of literature and art showcased the charm of cultural diversity, making Tang China a golden and cosmopolitan era in Chinese history. Its capital, Chang’an, grew into one of the world’s largest and most international cities at the time, attracting merchants, scholars, and religious figures from Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and Europe.

As crucial actors along the Silk Road, Tang linguistic mediators bridged language and cultural gaps, significantly advancing East-West exchange and integration. Studying their historical role enhances our understanding of the Silk Road’s historical importance and the Tang Dynasty’s unique position in East-West relations. These interpreters not only shaped their own time but also laid the foundations for future intercultural exchange—and their legacy merits lasting recognition and scholarly attention. 

Li Weili is an assistant research fellow from the Institute of History at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

Edited by REN GUANHONG