George Koutsouflakis states that underwater archaeology is an inherently interdisciplinary domain, requiring archaeologists to be proficient in a wide array of technologies. Photo: COURTESY OF GEORGE KOUTSOUFLAKIS

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The story of George Koutsouflakis, an associate professor of Underwater Archaeology at the University of Thessaly in Greece, begins not in a lecture hall but in the deep blue embrace of the Aegean. Raised on the island of Ikaria in a seafaring family, his path seemed destined for the ocean. Yet it was a chance encounter with the book Diving into the Past that set him on a lifelong journey—not as a sailor, but as a pioneer of underwater archaeology in Greece. In an exclusive interview with CSST, Koutsouflakis recounts his first dive into history, the evolution of maritime archaeology in Greece, and his hopes for future collaborations. 

Rising popularity of underwater archaeology 

CSST: What do you see as underwater archaeology’s most exciting developments today? 

Koutsouflakis: In the 35 years since my initial foray into underwater archaeology, the field has undergone profound transformations. Advancements in diving training, equipment, ethics, and methodology have revolutionized research. Underwater archaeology is now an inherently interdisciplinary domain, requiring archaeologists to be proficient in a wide array of technologies. Present-day archaeological investigations can be conducted at depths that were considered prohibitive four decades ago.

 

Moreover, technological advancements have introduced innovative methods for documenting underwater antiquities, thereby minimizing risk and facilitating access to previously inaccessible sites. Additionally, the costs associated with such technologies have significantly decreased, making them more feasible for archaeological projects. The pace of these developments is extraordinarily rapid, and we may well be the last generation of archaeologists to conduct dives in person. The integration of these technologies has significantly reduced the time and cost of archaeological research, enhanced safety protocols, and streamlined underwater excavations. These technological advancements undoubtedly inspire enthusiasm; however, they also raise certain concerns. 

Many of today’s highly skilled underwater archaeologists, adept at utilizing advanced equipment, have shifted away from the fundamental objective of the discipline: to study, analyze, and interpret archaeological findings from the seabed. This necessitates a strong foundation in classical studies, which, unfortunately, has seen a decline. The young generations of students in their 20-30s are more interested in modern technology than material studies. However, the line of work requires sound knowledge of the past. The technical aspect of any underwater mission remains of course important, but we need to remember that it is the tool, not the end goal. 

CSST: With the opening of the Alonissos Underwater Museum and the planned construction of the National Museum of Underwater Antiquities in Piraeus, how do you believe these museums will influence the development of underwater archaeology? 

Koutsouflakis: The increasing popularity of underwater archaeology over the past 15 years is closely linked to media exposure and the dissemination of information. Diving is no longer an exclusive pursuit for a select few but has become widely accessible, requiring no exceptional athletic skills. Consequently, public interest in all aspects of underwater exploration has surged. There is now a broader recognition that the study and preservation of underwater cultural heritage is not merely an esoteric pursuit for a privileged group of scholars. Instead, it holds significance for diverse segments of society and, as such, has become an important facet of public discourse. The establishment of visitable underwater archaeological sites—such as underwater museums—and the development of applications like dry diving, which allows individuals to explore ancient shipwrecks in a digital environment, have made underwater archaeology more accessible to the general public. These initiatives have successfully garnered public interest in a field that was once the exclusive domain of specialists. 

‘Closed time capsule’ 

CSST: Compared to terrestrial archaeology, what unique advantages does underwater archaeology offer, and what specific challenges does it face? 

Koutsouflakis: The differences in methodology between underwater and terrestrial archaeological research are non-existent. The same methodology governs both specialties. What differs significantly are the means of practical application of this methodology. Anything you undertake in the sea is much more expensive, much more time-consuming, much more difficult, and much more laborious. One could therefore easily ask “why waste money on a type of research that is less rewarding?” The answer here is quite clear. There are some special qualitative characteristics in ancient shipwrecks that no terrestrial deposit possesses. A shipwreck is an unintentional, unplanned, and largely random event. However, what mainly differentiates it from terrestrial archaeological sites is the extremely reduced degree of human intervention in its environment after sinking. It is a single closed set that is stored in a treasury of time and we then have the opportunity to study it where time stopped. This is something that a land-based archaeologist can rarely find. Only in cases like Pompeii or during the excavation of a tomb will he encounter similar conditions. This is why shipwrecks have been characterized by archaeologists as ‘closed time capsules.’ 

However, the advantages are much greater and beyond this synchronicity of artifacts in a closed assemblage. Usually, ancient shipwrecks yield a large number of intact objects that are preserved in excellent condition and integrity compared to those of land-based excavations. Also, in shipwrecks, organic remains can be preserved that would never survive in a terrestrial environment. Perhaps wood is the best known of these. We would know much less about ancient and medieval shipbuilding if all these shipwrecks hadn’t been preserved in the Mediterranean. 

CSST: How do underwater archaeological projects typically begin? How do these different approaches shape the research process? 

Koutsouflakis: The beginning of any underwater archaeological research is what I call “information.” No underwater archaeologist will ever start a research project in an area where there is no indication. There, one will try to collect all the leaked information that is diffused in the social environment mainly by people of the sea, fishermen, sponge-divers, amateur divers, etc. Before the archaeologist arrives to dive in an area, it is a given that others have preceded him. This information must be collected, recorded, and evaluated. 

The second step is the formation of an interdisciplinary research team that will frame this research. There should be appropriate specialists (archaeologists, conservators, architects, photographers, cinematographers, technical divers, etc.) to ensure that this research will be carried out according to specific standards. 

The third step is to draw up a budget and find sources of funding. And the last step is to draw up a complete research proposal and submit it for approval by the services of the Ministry of Culture. 

My team can explore marine areas by diving up to the 60-meter depth zone. For greater depths, we will have to resort to underwater drones, AUVs [autonomous underwater vehicles], and side-scan sonar or sub-bottom profilers, or even to technical means that do not require diving. 

Ancient shipwrecks tell stories of past 

CSST: Based on your discoveries, what new insights have emerged about the scale, routes, or commodities of ancient maritime commerce? 

Koutsouflakis: Over the past two decades, my research has documented more than 100 ancient and medieval shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea. These shipwrecks predominantly belonged to merchant vessels, and the analysis of their cargo has significantly contributed to our understanding of maritime trade in antiquity. 

One of the most compelling aspects of this research has been the realization that a substantial portion of these cargoes originated from distant regions of the Mediterranean. Among the shipwrecks we have investigated, we have identified amphorae from the Black Sea, Cyprus, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, Italy, and Spain. These findings predominantly pertain to the Roman period, a time when the economy and trade networks of the Mediterranean were largely unified under Roman rule. Greek and Roman ancient writers sometimes delve deep into these aspects of “universal” trade and its effects on the everyday lives of Roman citizens, and it is quite fascinating to discover and analyze cargoes that dovetail perfectly well with what we read in ancient texts and epigraphy. 

The breadth of information derived from the comprehensive study of such shipwrecks is extensive. This research enables the quantification of trade patterns, the identification of specific commercial strategies, and an enhanced understanding of regional competition in the trade of commodities such as wine, oil, and fish sauces—luxury items that were highly valued in antiquity. 

CSST: What are the biggest challenges in protecting and studying these submerged sites, and how can international collaborations contribute to their preservation? 

Koutsouflakis: The research programs in which I participated, both as a team member and as a director, primarily focused on seabed reconnaissance rather than excavation. Since 1995, national priorities have centered on the documentation and protection of ancient and medieval shipwrecks within Greece’s territorial waters. Effective protection necessitates prior knowledge of an artifact’s existence, and until the 1990s, Greece’s efforts in recording and documenting ancient shipwrecks were notably insufficient. 

Beginning in 2005, I initiated a series of extensive surveys aimed at discovering and preliminarily documenting shipwrecks that had previously remained entirely unknown. Consequently, the surveys conducted on these sites were largely sample-based, primarily intended to identify and analyze cargo without disrupting the integrity of the wrecks as historical monuments. We were very selective when deciding what to remove and raise from an ancient shipwreck. Methodologically, field reconnaissance research must precede excavation, as it provides comprehensive regional data and enables informed decisions regarding which archaeological sites merit further excavation. 

The excavation of a shipwreck represents a long-term commitment for an underwater archaeologist. Therefore, it is essential to carefully select sites that possess significant scientific value and present unresolved research questions. 

I believe that Greece’s highest national priority in underwater archaeology remains the systematic recording and documentation of its underwater cultural heritage. Despite significant progress over the past 25 years, vast marine areas in Greece remain unexplored. Consequently, the number of ancient shipwrecks yet to be discovered likely reaches hundreds, if not thousands. 

An analysis of the distribution of known ancient shipwrecks in Greece reveals clusters of high concentrations alongside extensive areas with no recorded findings. However, this distribution does not accurately reflect historical maritime activity; rather, it merely indicates where surveys have been conducted and where they have not. This distortion underscores the necessity of continuing reconnaissance surveys to document underwater antiquities and expanding research efforts into previously unexplored areas. 

Edited by LIAN ZHIXIAN