FILE PHOTO: A detail of “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove” painted by the Tang-era artist Sun Wei, depicting a renowned group of Chinese literati of the Wei, Jin periods, who banded together to escape from the hypocrisy and danger of the secular world to a life of drinking and writing in the country 

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Sorrow is not merely an everyday emotion; it also functions as an aesthetic category. In the Western tradition, the concept of tragic consciousness has long been explored. Aristotle proposed that tragedy evokes pity and fear, ultimately leading to catharsis—a purification of emotions. Tragedy has often been regarded as the pinnacle of aesthetic expression. In ancient Greek tragedy, it is the conflict with fate, not merely emotional conflict, that gives rise to tragedy. Since the rise of modernity, certain irrationalist philosophers have further emphasized the inherent tragedy of life itself. Thus, sorrow has never been a straightforward concept; rather, it is deeply intertwined with the human condition and fate.

Chinese aesthetics lacks a direct equivalent to the Greek notions of tragedy and the tragic spirit. Traditional Chinese literary expression has been predominantly lyrical in nature, yet this lyrical tradition is often imbued with sorrow. As an ancient poem states, “The noble-hearted often bear sorrow.” Chinese literati, possessing a profound awareness of life, frequently express a sense of helplessness in the face of fate. Sorrow in Chinese aesthetics tends to carry a more balanced or neutral connotation, as reflected in the history of literature and philosophy. Confucianism advocates harmony through rite and music, praising works of poetry for being “expressive of enjoyment without being licentious, and of grief without being hurtfully excessive.” Thus, throughout the evolution of Chinese aesthetics, a culture of euphoric sensibility has consistently held a dominant position. While sorrow is undeniably linked to the essence of life, it has often been tempered and transformed within a cultural framework that celebrates grandeur and seeks harmony with nature.

Melancholic sensitivity in Wei and Jin period

The pre-Qin period (before 221 BCE) serves as the foundation for the culture of euphoric sensibility—a tradition rooted in the pragmatic navigation of worldly difficulties. In the process, an underlying thread of melancholic sensitivity also emerged. The explicit manifestation of Chinese culture has long been characterized by an emphasis on euphoric sensibility, which pursues harmony through rite and music, as well as inner peace. The pragmatic rationality in the Chinese tradition shapes a measured response to external challenges. Another key influence on Chinese philosophy is Taoism, which often embraces a transcendent ontology, advocating for detachment from emotional entanglements and transcendence of self. The philosophical tension between Confucian engagement with the world and Taoist withdrawal creates a dynamic framework that facilitates the reconciliation of sorrow. Within this perspective, the disillusionment of ideals is not perceived as an ultimate existential crisis; rather, self-perception becomes integrated into a broader cosmic order, wherein all beings find their optimal state of existence. In other words, within the Chinese cultural paradigm, the issue is not the disillusionment of an ideal, but rather the process of its realization and transformation.

It is in this context that the Wei and Jin dynasties (220–420) emerged as a distinctive era. Unlike previous periods, sorrow during this time took on a heightened significance. As Zong Baihua describes in Aesthetic Walk, this was an age “embellished with the most tragedies,” “marked by intensity, contradiction, passion, and a profound engagement with the human experience.” The turbulence of the era—the collapse of dominant families, political upheavals, shifting regimes, and the harsh realities of survival—inevitably shaped the spiritual landscape of the time. 

However, the deeper origins of this heightened melancholic sensitivity lay in the evolving understanding of human nature itself. By the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220), philosophy based on Qi (vital energy and disposition) had begun to probe the fundamental nature of human existence with greater depth. The Discourses Weighted in the Balance by Wang Chong asserts that “humans receive Qi from Heaven; as Qi takes form, the body is established.” Within this framework, Qi gathers to form humans, and humans carry five emotions. The human experience was no longer framed by a harmonious resonance between the self and the universe but by the solitary struggle with the agitation of Qi and emotion. This perspective fostered a growing awareness of the fragility of life, the loneliness of human existence, and the impotence of the individual in the face of fate.

Since the modern era, scholars have widely regarded the Wei and Jin dynasties as a period of “human awakening,” a concept that parallels the emergence of self-consciousness in Western philosophical traditions. While it would be reductive to impose Western theoretical frameworks onto China’s cultural trajectory, both traditions share a common concern with the exploration of individual existence. The awakening of self-awareness often brings with it a heightened sense of existential distress and tragedy, as individuals confront the tension between the finiteness of life and the boundlessness of the universe.

Zhong Rong’s A Critique of Poetry describes certain poetic works as possessing “a meaning that is sorrowful yet profound.” “Sorrow” is not merely an emotional state but is intrinsically linked to an awareness of life’s transience, reflecting the irreconcilable conflict between the finite self and the infinite cosmos. This realization nurtures a pervasive sense of melancholic sensitivity that came to define Wei and Jin aesthetics—not as a mere stylistic inclination, but as deeply embedded in the inner experience of life itself.

Resolution of tragic consciousness

“Sorrow” can be seen as a profound reflection on the meaning of life itself. The autonomy and awakening of individuals bring forth tragic experiences. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, this sense of tragedy was particularly persistent because it touched upon deep existential conflicts—conflicts that were not merely social in nature, but foundational questions regarding the essence of human existence. This type of tragedy, therefore, lacked a concrete resolution. The “Xuanxue” (or Neo-Taoism) philosophical movement during this time sought to transcend the limitations of traditional orthodox teachings, aiming to uncover a more profound understanding of life and a more fundamental worldview. However, Xuanxue did not offer a comprehensive solution to the issue of the human mind’s inner turmoil. Rather, it functioned more as a philosophical inquiry and an attempt at transcendence.

Simultaneously, the introduction of Buddhism to China provided spiritual solace and comfort to individuals. Buddhist teachings on suffering, emptiness, and impermanence resonated deeply with the existential struggles of people in the Wei and Jin period. However, the intellectual significance of Buddhism lay in its provision as a means of spiritual transcendence for individuals facing life’s inherent suffering. He Changqun, in A Primary Study of Wei-Jin Pure Conversation, argues that the synthesis of Confucian and Taoist thought within the Xuanxue framework created a metaphysical philosophical system that later incorporated Zen principles from Buddhism, exerting a profound impact on the development of Neo-Confucianism during the Song and Ming dynasties (960–1644). Despite the Wei and Jin dynasties being regarded as a particularly tragic era in Chinese history, the Xuanxue thought of the time laid the intellectual groundwork for future philosophical developments. The ideas contained in this movement were ultimately preserved and expanded upon within the Neo-Confucian tradition, which offered a more profound solution to and transcendence of the melancholic sensitivity in Chinese culture.

From the perspective of Chinese aesthetic tradition, addressing the melancholic sensitivity has always been an important concern. However, it is not about simply dismissing or ignoring sorrow; rather, it reflects a deeper cultural consciousness and an aesthetic pursuit. In ancient Chinese political thought, the concept of “great unity” emphasized an overarching harmony and order, a principle that also permeated the cultural response to sorrow, manifesting itself in the way sorrow was tolerated and transformed.

The rise of Song and Ming Neo-Confucianism marked a crucial turning point in Chinese philosophical thought. The transition from the “Theory of Talent and Human Nature” to the “Theories of the Heart-mind and Human Nature” represents not only an exploration of the individual’s inner spiritual world but also the construction of a rationalized intellectual framework. This shift simultaneously suppressed certain aspects of raw human experience while providing a counterforce against sorrow, guiding individuals toward spiritual perfection. In this way, the construction of the upper cultural level returns to a culture of euphoric sensibility. However, this does not mean that sorrow has been eradicated. Rather, it persists in a more latent and subtle form within Chinese culture. Beneath the surface of mainstream ideas, the aesthetic consciousness of sorrow still periodically surfaced, expressed through various cultural forms: in poetry as a lamentation of life’s transience, in paintings as a solitary chill, and in music as a melancholic elegance.

Euphoric sensibility transcending yet rooted in melancholic sensitivity

The concept of euphoric sensibility in Chinese culture is often understood as an ideal rooted in but transcending melancholic sensitivity. Sorrow, in this context, is the unrefined and immediate experience of life, deeply embedded in the quotidian existence of individuals, reflecting both their existential and spiritual states. In Chinese aesthetics, literati frequently transform their internal contradictions into an aesthetic appreciation of sorrow. While melancholic sensitivity has not dominated the cultural mainstream following the Wei and Jin dynasties, it subtly persists in various aesthetic forms. Melancholic sensitivity often emerges when life circumstances or broader socio-political change seems overwhelming.

However, the melancholic sensitivity that arises from individual aesthetic inclinations differs from that inherent to the spirit of the times. Since the Ming and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, Chinese culture has constructed an idealized vision of euphoric sensibility, offering a spiritual and elevated aesthetic ideal. Yet, beneath this idealization, a secular undercurrent persists. Melancholic sensitivity is veiled within this secularization. The late modern philosophical critiques of traditional notions of heart-mind and human nature in China have given rise to modern secular concepts, causing euphoric sensibility to lose some of its transcendental foundation. Consequently, the resurgence of sorrow represents a shift toward aesthetic modernity.

Sorrow is intrinsic to human life—an inherent element of human existence. Yet, Chinese aesthetics consistently finds ways to reconcile this melancholic sensitivity. Euphoric sensibility has traditionally been the dominant force within Chinese aesthetics, offering an idealized vision of harmony and emotional transcendence. The Wei and Jin periods, marked by pervasive sorrow, hold a particularly distinct place in this tradition. The emotional temperament of the Wei and Jin era shares a certain affinity with the concerns of contemporary society in a way that extends beyond mere historical timelines.

From a philosophical perspective, Western thought often explores modernity of the present age. Hegel’s philosophy of history posits that modernity’s hallmark is agency—the awakening of self-consciousness. If one adopts a broader perspective on Chinese history, the Wei and Jin period can be considered an era of transcendence. In this sense, the misfortunes faced by the Wei-Jin people may be interpreted as a reflection of the torment that modernity imposes on humanity.

The interplay between melancholic sensitivity and euphoric sensibility in Chinese aesthetics underscores the depth and complexity of Chinese culture. Euphoric sensibility advocates for balance and harmony, offering modern society both a desirable approach to life and a set of values to aspire to. In contrast, melancholic sensitivity highlights the individual’s emotional experiences, provoking deeper reflection on the nature of life and fate. The culture of melancholic sensitivity and the culture of euphoric sensibility both remain relevant in contemporary China.

Li Xuyang is an assistant research fellow from the Institute of Literature at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. 

Edited by REN GUANHONG