A replica of an earthquake detector in Beijing Ancient Observatory, modeled after the recorded seismoscope invented by the Eastern Han scientist Zhang Heng Photo: CFP

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Recently, I read a book titled Fire Over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty 23–220 AD, written by the Australian sinologist Richard Rafe Champion de Crespigny. The content about the scientific and technological development of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220) in his book reminds me of a question related Chinese intellectual history: did Confucianism in China necessarily hinder the development of science and technology?

Favorable conditions

Some who answers “yes” to the above question may confuse China prior to and after the Tang-Song Transformation [a transitional period between medieval and modern China, according to some scholars]. After the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) eras, the imperial examination system became a restraint imposed on the intellectuals in ancient China, leaving them little time and energy to explore beyond the examination subjects. This greatly hindered scientific innovation in the period. 

However, recruitment and appointment in the Eastern Han Dynasty relied heavily on recommendations by aristocrats and local officials [the cha-ju system] rather than examinations. The uncertainty of recruitment under cha-ju system enabled scholars to devote more energy to free exploration. Representative figures in this regard included the polymathic scientist Zhang Heng, Cai Lun [a eunuch traditionally credited with the invention of paper], and Wang Chong [an astronomer, meteorologist, naturalist, and philosopher]. Zhang’s grandfather had made important contributions to the founding of the Eastern Han. The privileged family background allowed Zhang to immerse himself in various fields such as poetry, arithmetic, geology, astronomy, and geography. Zhang even gave up the “Xiao Lian” title (a coveted pathway to high official rank at that time) granted by the court for his research and interests.

As for Cai Lun, the eunuchs in the Eastern Han differed from those of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, and many of them were well educated and highly practical. In addition to his remarkable improvements to papermaking process, Cai also made weapons, an indicator of his knowledge of metallurgy. But Cai was not necessarily exceptional among the Eastern Han eunuchs. A eunuch named Bi Lan in the reign of Emperor Ling of Han invented “Ke Wu,” a device based on siphon theory for washing operations in roads. Wang Chong, though born into a poor family and holding only a minor government position in Kuaiji County for a long time, still had enough time to create the trenchant and critical Lunheng [Disquisitions]. In this book, Wang discussed scientific issues such as how the universe works, how infectious diseases begin, and where agricultural pests come from. His work was fully recognized by Joseph Needham, a British historian of science. Obviously, Zhang, Cai, and Wang represented three different social classes at that time—Confucian scholar-officials, eunuchs, and intellectuals without eminent background. The Eastern Han provided opportunities for excellent scientific talents from these three classes, which was quite rare in the unified dynasties following the Qin.

Possibilities for sci-tech development

In this respect, it is not correct to simply say that Confucianism was against science and technology in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The specific features of Confucian ideology at that time offered potential avenues for the advancement of science and technology in the following ways: 

From an economic perspective, Ren Zheng, or Benevolent Governance, a core principle of Confucianism, requires the government to maintain the vitality of society through low tax rates and to minimize unnecessary military actions. This economic principle had a profound impact on the governance of the state. When Eastern Han was at its peak, the input-output ratio of its military expansion activities was higher than that of the preceding Western Han (a typical example is General Ban Chao’s skillful control of the Western Regions through diplomacy in Eastern Han era). These low-cost victories made the Western Han’s heavy taxation policy unnecessary in the Eastern Han era. Such an economic environment helped boost the manorial economy, which afforded ample leisure time for intellectuals who owned private land. This leisure time could be dedicated to scientific exploration.

The Confucian ideology of “Great Unity” was also favorable to sci-tech development. It stressed the prosperity of the population in Luoyang, the Eastern Han capital, as well as the technological demands resulting from this population concentration. Dr. Rafe de Crespigny points out that the Luoyang city, though smaller than the Western Han capital Chang’an, had a dense population (he estimated it to be between 400,000 and 500,000). Since Luoyang is not close to the sea like Rome, the pollutant discharge of such a concentrated population would increase the risk of infectious diseases. However, few epidemics were recorded in Luoyang, reflecting the effectiveness of the technological measures adopted by the Han court to solve the pollution problems. These measures included the continual excavation of sewage canals throughout the capital and the widening of existing river channels. The “Ke Wu” invented by Bi Lan was also a fantastic device to optimize dust control for dirt roads. Unlike the capital of the Ming Dynasty [present-day Beijing], which was often troubled by sandstorms, Luoyang was an ecological paradise.

The circle of jing-xue, or Classics Scholarship [which aimed at the fundamental understanding of the order and values of the world by exploring the implications of Confucian classics] in the Eastern Han era was academically vibrant. The most significant academic debate was between the New-Classics School and the Old-Classics School [during the Qin Dynasty, under Qin Shi Huang’s order, a massive burning of books took place in which most copies of the Confucian classics were destroyed. After the founding of the Han, an intensive campaign was undertaken to recover the Confucian classics. The versions provided by older scholars through memorization and recorded in clerical script were known as new classics. The pre-Qin texts survived and written in pre-Qin script were known as old classics]. The New-Classics School tended to believe in prophecy and divination, while the Old-Classics School was more rational and pragmatic. Dr. Rafe de Crespigny believes that the imperial family’s attitude towards this debate has wavered. This ambiguous ideological background essentially increased the vitality of the academic circle. The pragmatism of the Old-Classics School had a profound impact on sci-tech development.

Objective evaluation

All in all, the tolerance of Han Confucianism towards science should not be overestimated. 

Firstly, certain scientific products from the West faced various ideological obstacles when entering China. Interestingly, those who had played a positive role in introducing those products were often despised by Confucian historians as “fatuous emperors,” such as Emperor Ling of Han. Emperor Ling’s introduction of “Hu Chuang” (i.e. chair) to replace the Han custom of kneeling greatly improved circulation in legs and feet, thus improving national health. His initiative to establish “Hongdumen School” (a school for training artistic talents) also seemed to be a wise move to alleviate competition among Confucian intellectuals. However, in the traditional value system represented by the Book of the Later Han, these practices became concrete evidence of Emperor Ling’s incompetence.

Secondly, due to the Confucian fascination with land and repulsion towards the ocean, navigation technologies were also suppressed in the Eastern Han era. By the early 2nd century, the Han court was unable to repel the long-term raids of pirates on the eastern coast with their navy, and could only attempt to capture pirates after they came ashore. Proposals to expand the navy and improve navigation skill were often opposed by Confucian officials on ideological grounds. In contrast to the Roman Empire, which benefited from the Mediterranean as its natural logistics system, the Eastern Han Dynasty experienced a significant decline in navigation capabilities.

The neglect of the ocean (and the international trade opportunities it represents) resulted in another byproduct, the relatively underdeveloped commodity economy of the Eastern Han Dynasty. A key sign of a developed commodity economy is the complete replacement of commodity money with representative money. In the Han Dynasty, court officials received half their salaries in coins and half in grains, and in times of economic deterioration, even fabric was used as currency. This economic way of life was not helpful for the improvement of people’s abstract and logical thinking, and made financial innovation extremely difficult. In contrast, the city of Miletus, the birthplace of ancient Greek philosophy and science, was known for its international maritime trade and financial innovations, and its first philosopher (scientist), Thales of Miletus, was also a genius in the use of futures. In the Eastern Han however, even the most famous scientist, Zhang Heng, had nothing to do with commerce.

Xu Yingjin is a professor from the School of Philosophy at Fudan University.

Edited by REN GUANHONG