Yuelu Academy, dating back to the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), in Changsha, Hunan Province Photo: CFP 

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A webinar on the theme of “Academy and Literature” was held by Wuhan University on Nov. 12. With a history of over a thousand years, shuyuan [Chinese academies] have played an important role in fostering folk customs, shaping social ethos, and developing ethical concepts. In modern times, academy studies have developed into a general discipline similar to kejuology [study of the imperial examination], redology [study of the Dream of the Red Chamber], Dunhuang studies, oracle bone studies, etc. 

Development history 

In the early Tang Dynasty (618–907), academies, born among the citizenry, were initially only a place for scholars to study. Soon thereafter, these institutions began teaching and education activities and assumed the responsibility of spreading cultural knowledge. Since their emergence, academies served as a main front for the preservation and dissemination of traditional culture. It formed an interdependent and mutually-reinforcing relationship with culture, while embodying special value orientations for cultural inheritance. 

“Academies, as an integral part of education, have been constantly improving their cultural selection function,” said Zhao Guoquan, a professor from the Faculty of Education at Henan University. Their choice of culture was highly aligned with political and social needs from the outset. For example, academies in Jiangnan [the region south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River] in the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279) pursued the training of practical talents, and therefore cultivated many students into successful candidates in imperial examinations.

 

“Academies provided public spaces for intellectuals’ activities, while activity focuses shifted with dynasties and social reforms,” said Xiong Haiying, a professor from the School of Chinese Language and Literature at Hubei University. Influenced by prevailing imperial examinations in the late Song Dynasty (960–1279), academies in northern Fujian Province not only gave lectures, but were also used as exam venues and for preaching. After the Yuan regime (1271–1368) overturned the Song court and abolished the imperial examination system for decades, the Song adherents and Confucian scholars communicated with each other using academies as their platforms. They gradually came to terms with the new dynasty by writing, reviving academies, and serving as officially appointed principals. In addition, scholars in the Yuan Dynasty broke through the “distinction between Huaxia [also known as the Han people] and Yi [a Chinese name for other ethnic groups].” They committed themselves to revitalizing Neo-Confucianism and promoting Zhu Xi’s theory of daotong [establishing Confucianism as orthodox ideology], reflecting the sense of mission of northern Fujian intellectuals. The close cooperation between academies and bookstores in compiling and engraving books promoted the popularization and dissemination movements of Neo-Confucianism and poetics. 

“In the 17th and 18th centuries, rulers’ supporting and officializing academies became the fundamental force driving academies into new scholarly and educational centers,” said Chen Shilong, a research fellow from the Institute of History at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. During the reign of Shunzhi Emperor in the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), academies faced initial rejection and later policy loosening. Subsequently, Kangxi Emperor gave greater support for the establishment and promotion of orthodox ideology. Later, Yongzheng Emperor approved the development of academies at the level of provincial capitals. Accordingly, academies gained more and more official support, generated greater social influence, and received increasingly positive social feedbacks. The atmosphere within academic institutions transitioned as well, from empty lectures on the nature of the mind in the late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), to Neo-Confucianism, followed by textual research. 

Academic value 

Over the past thousand years, a large number and a wide variety of academy documents have been preserved, including academy-themed prose, chronicles, rules and regulations, keyi [test papers of academies], and handouts, which are important historical materials for academy and philosophy history. 

Zhang Jinsong, dean of the School of Education at Nanchang Normal University, introduced Tianxia Shuyuan Zongzhi [The General Chronicles of Academies in China], compiled by the Qing Dynasty scholar Wang Chang. The book was compiled according to the administrative units of provinces, prefectures, and counties in the Qing Dynasty, and placed academies under the county level. Each academy has a corresponding profile, ranging from a few to several hundred characters. Clear and simple in style, it is easy to look up and understand the general situation and influence of the academies of the time. 

In Chen’s opinion, academy chronicles are of important historical value. Some academies were involved in political struggles, such as the Donglin Academy and Shoushan Academy of the Ming Dynasty, and thus offered historical references for examining political history. 

According to Lu Xiaojun, a professor from the College of Chinese Language and Literature at Wuhan University, collecting and compiling the basic literature of keyi, and summarizing the keyi collections and catalogues are basic conditions for further keyi studies. Keyi literature is not only useful in helping to avoid historical misinterpretations, but also in constructing certain important judgments, thereby expanding research on intellectual, academic, education, and literary history. 

“Currently, scholars focus primarily on such topics as academy systems, education, collected books, sacrifice, Neo-Confucianism, textual research, and imperial examinations,” Lu added. “Academy and literature” integrates the history of education and literature, which is expected to comprise a promising academic field in the future. 

Yu Liming, deputy director of the Research Center of Chinese Traditional Culture at Wuhan University, highlighted the necessity of exploring the thoughts and creations of traditional Chinese scholars, especially after the Song Dynasty, from an academy perspective, and called for efforts from scholars of literary history, intellectual history, and social history. 

Edited by YANG LANLAN