In China, classical discussions on the stages of societal development were extensive, such as the Book of Rites attributing to Confucius a division of society into Datong and Xiaokang. Photo: TUCHONG

Since the advent of the modern era, the origins of Chinese civilization, along with inquiries into its foundational sources and developmental trajectory, have remained central concerns within academic discourse. These topics serve as pivotal frameworks for reconstructing Chinese history through archaeological investigation. The concept of civilization itself is inherently dynamic and ever-evolving, with scholars continuously probing deeper into its nuances.

Ancient consciousness 

The term “civilization” (wenming) has long appeared in ancient Chinese texts. As recorded in the Book of Documents millennia ago, “Emperor Shun, also known as Chonghua, was in harmony with the sovereign way. He was wise and sagacious, embodying both enlightenment and virtue (wenming), while maintaining a demeanor of warmth, humility, and sincerity. His profound moral character became widely recognized, leading to his appointment to the throne.” In this context, wenming signifies moral virtues and behavioral norms, representing an abstract ideal and a high value judgement.

The Western concept of civilization, originating in ancient Greece, was framed through a binary distinction between the “civilized” and the “barbaric.” This dichotomy solidified following the Greek victory in the Second Persian War in 480–479 BCE, coinciding with the emergence of the polis, which was rooted in inland agricultural societies. The Greeks perceived themselves as a “civilized” people, characterized by historical consciousness, an agrarian economy, urban organization, and social norms, including respect for women. Shared religious practices, rituals, linguistic identities, and a common ethnic consciousness further reinforced this distinction. For millennia, rural and urban life remained interdependent within the framework of the “civilized” polis.

The concept of civilization was closely tied to agriculture, as the cultivation of land represents humanity’s transformation of nature. This transition facilitated urbanization, leading to the emergence of labor specialization, priesthoods, as well as art and science. Over time, writing systems were developed as a complement to oral communication. These attributes distinguished the “civilized” from the “barbaric.”

Modern European concept 

The term “civilization” as an academic concept emerged in the late 18th century, closely tied to European colonial expansion and the rise of modern science and the social sciences. It is generally accepted that the earliest formal definition appeared in Ami des hommes, ou Traité de la population (1756) by Victor Riqueti, Marquis de Mirabeau, a French economist of the Physiocratic school. According to Mirabeau, civilization was first and foremost associated with state regulation and the primacy of civil law, with governance playing a crucial role in civil law where it curbs violence and ensures legal order. This legal framework facilitated the expansion of trade and commerce by fostering stable government and safeguarding private property. Urban societies increasingly came to value politeness and decorum, with women assuming a more significant role. Civilization, as a form of social structure, connected members of society, making social interaction and etiquette central elements. Religion was also considered a fundamental pillar of civilization, as it imposed moral constraints that governed behavior and fostered a more temperate disposition. Within this framework, civilization encompassed a specific form of social interaction that upheld population growth, freedom, and justice.

The concept of civilization emerged from shifting social consciousness and humanity’s aspirations to self-awareness. Various nations and regions have developed diverse interpretations of civilization, and while external understandings have been introduced to China, the country has largely maintained its ancient tradition of ascribing a highly positive value judgment to the term. The validation of China’s ancient civilization, the reconstruction of its historical trajectory, and the exploration of its distinctive characteristics remain central topics of scholarly inquiry. Investigating the origins of Chinese civilization not only represents an effort to reflect on ancient Chinese civilization but is also a response to Western narratives and an engagement with modernity. Moreover, it is an essential component of China’s broader modernization process.

Social development stage

Different regions have constructed distinct frameworks for understanding the stages of ancient historical development. For example, the ancient Greek poet Hesiod, in his epic Works and Days, envisioned human history as progressing through five successive ages. In China, classical discussions on the stages of societal development were extensive. For instance, the Book of Rites attributes to Confucius a division of society into two phases: Datong (Grand Harmony) and Xiaokang (Moderate Prosperity).

Since the modern era, scholars have explored the stages of human history and social development from a variety of perspectives. Mirabeau used the term “civilization” to describe a refined, cultured, well-mannered, and virtuous social group. This conceptualization quickly gained traction across Europe, becoming a key term in Enlightenment thought. Over time, the religious foundations of civilization eroded, and the concept became increasingly secularized, emerging as an exemplar of “rationality.” Civilization thus became integral to the notion of progress, representing the final stage in the evolution from obscurantism to barbarism and finally to civilization. The American anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan, in his work Ancient Society, expanded upon this three-stage theory through his studies of the Iroquois tribes of North America.

Friedrich Engels argued that the gentile constitution was ultimately “shattered by the division of labor and its result, the cleavage of society into classes. It was replaced by the state.” In The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, he identified the emergence of “fortified towns,” including defensive structures such as bristling battlements, towers, and moats, as the defining markers of the “era of civilization.” Engels further theorized that states arose from the ruins of the gentile constitution in three primary forms—Athens, Rome, and the Germans—offering a systematic exposition of historical materialism.

Since the 20th century, new academic models of social development have emerged. Among them, the framework proposed by American anthropologist Elman Service—dividing human history into bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states—has become one of the most influential paradigms.

Archaeological perspective

As a product of the Enlightenment, archaeology established a scientific framework for exploring ancient civilizations. Scholars, drawing from diverse theoretical perspectives, have proposed various criteria for identifying the origins of civilization, leading to the recognition of numerous ancient civilizations. Among the earliest contributions, Australian-born British archaeologist V. Gordon Childe outlined 10 criteria for defining civilization, which represents one of the earlier contributions to the field.

Chinese archaeologist Xia Nai defined civilization as the stage when “a society has transitioned from the disintegration of the gentile constitution into a class-based society organized as a state.” In such societies, beyond the political structure of the state itself, cities function as hubs for political, economic, and cultural activities. These civilizations typically invent writing systems, use writing for record-keeping, and have developed metal smelting techniques. Of these characteristics, Xia emphasized that “writing is the most crucial marker of civilization.” Another archaeologist, Su Bingqi, proposed a three-stage model for the origins of civilization: early cultures, early cities, and early states. He also outlined a three-stage framework for China’s state development—early states, regional states, and empires—as well as three developmental patterns: primary, secondary, and successive civilizations.

The Chinese national-level project to trace the origins of Chinese civilization sets out the following criteria for the emergence of a civilized society: First, economic growth and population expansion lead to the development of intensive agriculture and the formation of early urban centers. Second, increasing social stratification and specialization results in class divisions and the emergence of private ownership. Third, the consolidation of political power gives rise to the establishment of monarchy and the state, alongside the development of moral codes, legal systems, social norms, and ancestor worship as part of religious consciousness. Environmental factors such as climate change and the utilization of natural resources, particularly land, also play a significant role in the origins of civilization.

Exchanges and mutual learning 

The concept of civilization can be divided into three stages: classical conceptions of civilization, early modern understandings, and contemporary interpretations. Modern civilization is the outcome of modernization, representing the collective achievements of modern society and culture.

Civilization and culture are closely related concepts. Culture refers to the way of life and achievements of a particular society, emphasizing the unique characteristics of different societies and ethnic groups and reflecting their self-awareness. Civilization, by contrast, is a dynamic and evolving process that highlights interactions and exchanges among civilizations, the commonalities and historical contextuality of different civilizations, and the shared self-consciousness of diverse communities.

As an ancient civilization with strong historical continuity, China faced profound cultural crises due to the powerful influence of the West during the modern era. Research on the origins of Chinese civilization must not only clarify the conceptual evolution, differentiation, and transformation of civilization and reconstruct the key stages of social complexity and civilization formation but also highlight the distinctive characteristics of Chinese civilization within the modernization process. These efforts aim to strengthen cultural confidence, facilitate exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations, and promote civilizational integration, ultimately guiding an ancient civilization toward modernization and its incorporation into global modernity.

Modernization itself is a continuously evolving concept. Some ancient civilizations, while embracing technological and economic advancements in the process of modernization, have rejected modern social structures and intellectual frameworks, creating an opposition between their indigenous traditions and modern civilization. Such an approach is ultimately unsustainable. The modernization process inevitably involves the strategic interaction and mutual influence of different civilizations, leading to the emergence of a new form of civilization that is globally integrated and universally relevant.

Yu Xiyun is a professor from the School of History at Wuhan University. 

Edited by REN GUANHONG